Table 1. Participant Characteristics (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

n (%)
Age range (years)
 18–19 136 (18.9)
 20–22 487 (67.5)
 23–30 98 (13.6)
Male gender 218 (30.2)
Course duration
 6-year university course 103 (14.3)
 4-year university course 618 (85.7)
Field of study
 Science and engineering 83 (11.5)
 Medicine 170 (23.6)
 Literature 272 (37.7)
 Others 196 (27.2)
No leisure-time physical activity 446 (61.9)
Skipping breakfast 182 (25.2)
Living alone 251 (34.8)
Table 2. Spearman Correlations between Autistic Traits, Autistic Trait Subcomponents, ADHD Traits, Poor Student Performance, and Low Attendance Category Score (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Poor student performance (presenteeism, ≤40) 1 0.16*** 0.22*** -0.08* 0.16*** 0.20*** 0.19*** 0.20*** 0.16***
2. Low attendance (< 80%) 1 0.02 0.01 -0.01 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.07
(Autistic traits)
3. AQ Short (quartiles) 1 0.05 0.59*** 0.53*** 0.71*** 0.49*** 0.15***
(Autistic trait subcomponents)
4. Numbers/patterns (quartiles) 1 -0.18*** -0.14*** -0.20*** -0.29*** 0.06
5. Imagination (quartiles) 1 0.25*** 0.32*** 0.32*** 0.11**
6. Routine (quartiles) 1 0.35*** 0.37*** 0.14***
7. Social skills (quartiles) 1 0.34*** 0.05
8. Switching (quartiles) 1 0.14***
(ADHD traits)
9. ASRS (quartiles) 1
Table 3. Participant Characteristics According to the Presence/Absence of Poor Student Performance (Presenteeism) and Low Class Attendance (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

Poor Performance Low Attendance
Yes (presenteeism
scores ≤40)
No (presenteeism
scores >40)
p Yes (class attendance <80%) No (class attendance ≥80%) p
n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%)
Age range (years)
 18–19 50 (21.6) 86 (17.6) 0.375 18 (14.8) 118 (19.7) 0.255
 20–22 154 (66.4) 333 (68.1) 83 (68.0) 404 (67.4)
 23–30 28 (12.1) 70 (14.3) 21 (17.2) 77 (12.9)
Male gender 66 (28.4) 152 (31.1) 0.472 44 (36.1) 174 (29.0) 0.124
Course duration
 6-year university course 29 (12.5) 74 (15.1) 0.345 12 (9.8) 91 (15.2) 0.123
 4-year university course 203 (87.5) 415 (84.9) 110 (90.2) 508 (84.8)
Field of study
 Science and engineering 26 (11.2) 57 (11.7) 0.808 9 (7.4) 74 (12.4) 0.001
 Medicine 57 (24.6) 113 (23.1) 18 (14.8) 152 (25.4)
 Literature 91 (39.2) 181 (37.0) 64 (52.5) 208 (34.7)
 Others 58 (25.0) 138 (28.2) 31 (25.4) 165 (27.5)
No leisure-time physical activity 159 (68.5) 287 (58.7) 0.011 76 (62.3) 370 (61.8) 0.913
Skipping breakfast 68 (29.3) 114 (23.3) 0.083 47 (38.5) 135 (22.5) <0.001
Living alone 79 (34.1) 172 (35.2) 0.768 45 (36.9) 206 (34.4) 0.598
Table 4-1. Association between Poor Student Performance (Presenteeism) in University and Scores on Autistic Traits, Autistic Trait Subcomponents, and ADHD Traits (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

           Range of scores No. of participants No. of poor performance Univariate Multivariatea Multivariateb
OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p
Autistic traits
AQ-Short 1st Quartile (lowest) 40–66 197 44 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 67–70 182 43 1.08 (0.67–1.74) 0.765 1.03 (0.63–1.68) 0.915
3rd Quartile 71–75 192 70 2.00 (1.28–3.12) 0.002 1.92 (1.21–3.04) 0.006
4th Quartile (highest) 76–104 150 75 3.48 (2.19–5.53) <0.001 3.07 (1.90–4.96) <0.001
Autistic trait subcomponents
 Numbers/patterns 1st Quartile (lowest) 5–9 192 75 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 10–11 192 61 0.73 (0.48–1.11) 0.136 0.90 (0.56–1.46) 0.675
3rd Quartile 12–13 166 44 0.56 (0.36–0.88) 0.012 0.76 (0.45–1.26) 0.285
4th Quartile (highest) 14–20 171 52 0.68 (0.44–1.05) 0.085 1.01 (0.60–1.70) 0.968
 Imagination 1st Quartile (lowest) 8–18 236 60 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 19–20 198 57 1.19 (0.78–1.81) 0.432 1.16 (0.73–1.84) 0.523
3rd Quartile 21–22 159 51 1.39 (0.89–2.16) 0.150 1.11 (0.68–1.81) 0.670
4th Quartile (highest) 23–32 128 64 2.93 (1.86–4.62) <0.001 1.51 (0.88–2.59) 0.132
 Routine 1st Quartile (lowest) 4–9 169 31 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 10–10 173 57 2.19 (1.32–3.62) 0.002 2.03 (1.19–3.48) 0.010
3rd Quartile 11–11 164 43 1.58 (0.94–2.67) 0.085 1.37 (0.78–2.40) 0.280
4th Quartile (highest) 12–16 215 101 3.94 (2.46–6.33) <0.001 2.39 (1.38–4.13) 0.002
 Social skills 1st Quartile (lowest) 7–15 186 48 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 16–18 225 53 0.89 (0.57–1.39) 0.598 0.78 (0.48–1.27) 0.321
3rd Quartile 19–21 175 59 1.46 (0.93–2.3) 0.101 1.18 (0.71–1.97) 0.515
4th Quartile (highest) 22–28 135 72 3.29 (2.05–5.26) <0.001 1.81 (1.03–3.18) 0.040
 Switching 1st Quartile (lowest) 6–9 214 51 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 10–11 274 77 1.25 (0.83–1.88) 0.288 1.03 (0.66–1.62) 0.893
3rd Quartile 12–12 111 37 1.60 (0.97–2.65) 0.069 0.99 (0.55–1.78) 0.969
4th Quartile (highest) 13–16 122 67 3.89 (2.42–6.26) <0.001 1.78 (1.00–3.15) 0.050
ADHD traits
 ASRS 1st Quartile (lowest) 0–7 174 43 1.00   - 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 8–8 141 36 1.05 (0.63–1.74) 0.868 1.02 (0.60–1.73) 0.952 1.23 (0.71–2.15) 0.459
3rd Quartile 9–9 232 75 1.46 (0.94–2.26) 0.095 1.22 (0.77–1.93) 0.408 1.35 (0.83–2.20) 0.220
4th Quartile (highest) 10–20 174 78 2.48 (1.57–3.91) <0.001 2.13 (1.32–3.42) 0.002 2.24 (1.35–3.69) 0.002
Table 5-1. Association between Low Class Attendance in University and Scores on Autistic Traits, Autistic Trait Subcomponents, and ADHD Traits (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

            Range of scores No. of participants No. of low class attendance Univariate Multivariatea Multivariateb
OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p
Autistic traits
AQ-Short 1st Quartile (lowest) 40–66 197 34 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 67–70 182 27 0.84 (0.48–1.45) 0.522 0.84 (0.47–1.48) 0.536
3rd Quartile 71–75 192 33 1.00 (0.59–1.68) 0.985 0.92 (0.53–1.60) 0.768
4th Quartile (highest) 76–104 150 28 1.10 (0.63–1.91) 0.735 1.00 (0.56–1.79) 0.996
Autistic trait subcomponents
 Numbers/patterns 1st Quartile (lowest) 5–9 192 32 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 10–11 192 29 0.89 (0.51–1.54) 0.675 1.05 (0.57–1.91) 0.883
3rd Quartile 12–13 166 33 1.24 (0.72–2.12) 0.432 1.68 (0.92–3.07) 0.094
4th Quartile (highest) 14–20 171 28 0.98 (0.56–1.71) 0.940 1.09 (0.57–2.08) 0.802
 Imagination 1st Quartile (lowest) 8–18 236 41 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 19–20 198 34 0.99 (0.60–1.63) 0.956 0.92 (0.53–1.58) 0.759
3rd Quartile 21–22 159 25 0.89 (0.52–1.53) 0.667 0.74 (0.41–1.35) 0.325
4th Quartile (highest) 23–32 128 22 0.99 (0.56–1.74) 0.964 0.86 (0.44–1.69) 0.661
 Routine 1st Quartile (lowest) 4–9 169 26 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 10–10 173 27 1.02 (0.57–1.83) 0.955 1.03 (0.55–1.93) 0.935
3rd Quartile 11–11 164 30 1.23 (0.69–2.19) 0.479 1.35 (0.72–2.54) 0.347
4th Quartile (highest) 12–16 215 39 1.22 (0.71–2.10) 0.475 1.17 (0.61–2.24) 0.635
 Social skills 1st Quartile (lowest) 7–15 186 37 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 16–18 225 29 0.60 (0.35–1.01) 0.056 0.54 (0.31–0.96) 0.036
3rd Quartile 19–21 175 27 0.74 (0.43–1.27) 0.268 0.64 (0.35–1.17) 0.147
4th Quartile (highest) 22–28 135 29 1.10 (0.64–1.90) 0.728 0.91 (0.47–1.78) 0.780
 Switching 1st Quartile (lowest) 6–9 214 36 1.00     - 1.00     -
2nd Quartile 10–11 274 43 0.92 (0.57–1.49) 0.737 0.89 (0.52–1.51) 0.659
3rd Quartile 12–12 111 13 0.66 (0.33–1.30) 0.224 0.75 (0.35–1.61) 0.459
4th Quartile (highest) 13–16 122 30 1.61 (0.93–2.78) 0.086 1.49 (0.76–2.92) 0.244
ADHD traits
 ASRS 1st Quartile (lowest) 0–7 174 26 1.00   - 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 8–8 141 16 0.73 (0.37–1.42) 0.352 0.76 (0.39–1.51) 0.439 0.82 (0.41–1.67) 0.586
3rd Quartile 9–9 232 45 1.37 (0.81–2.32) 0.243 1.43 (0.82–2.48) 0.207 1.54 (0.87–2.73) 0.140
4th Quartile (highest) 10–20 174 35 1.43 (0.82–2.50) 0.206 1.45 (0.81–2.59) 0.209 1.45 (0.79–2.64) 0.227
Table 4-2. Association between Poor Student Performance (Presenteeism) in University and Scores on ADHD Trait Subcomponents (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

         Range of scores No. of participants No. of cases Univariate Multivariatea
OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p
Autistic traits
AQ-Short 1st Quartile (lowest) 40–66 197 44 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 67–70 182 43 1.08 (0.67–1.74) 0.765 1.04 (0.63–1.70) 0.884
3rd Quartile 71–75 192 70 2.00 (1.28–3.12) 0.002 1.93 (1.21–3.08) 0.006
4th Quartile (highest) 76–104 150 75 3.48 (2.19–5.53) <0.001 2.85 (1.76–4.63) <0.001
ADHD trait subcomponents
 Inattention 1st Quartile (lowest) 0–3 110 28 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 4 222 56 0.99 (0.58–1.67) 0.964 0.99 (0.57–1.72) 0.969
3rd Quartile 5 342 121 1.60 (0.99–2.60) 0.055 1.38 (0.82–2.33) 0.224
4th Quartile (highest) 6–11 47 27 3.95 (1.92–8.12) <0.001 2.88 (1.32–6.26) 0.008
 Hyperactivity–impulsivity 1st Tertile (lowest) 0–3 135 38 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Tertile 4 413 115 0.99 (0.64–1.52) 0.946 0.82 (0.51–1.31) 0.397
3rd Tertile (highest) 5-9 173 79 2.15 (1.33–3.47) 0.002 1.54 (0.92–2.59) 0.104
Table 5-2. Association between Low Class Attendance in University and Scores on ADHD Trait Subcomponents (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

         Range of scores No. of participants No. of cases Univariate Multivariatea
OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p
Autistic traits
AQ-Short 1st Quartile (lowest) 40–66 197 34 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 67–70 182 27 0.84 (0.48–1.45) 0.522 0.83 (0.47–1.47) 0.530
3rd Quartile 71–75 192 33 1.00 (0.59–1.68) 0.985 0.91 (0.52–1.57) 0.722
4th Quartile (highest) 76–104 150 28 1.10 (0.63–1.91) 0.735 0.93 (0.52–1.68) 0.814
ADHD trait subcomponents
 Inattention 1st Quartile (lowest) 0–3 110 15 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Quartile 4 222 29 0.95 (0.49–1.86) 0.885 1.04 (0.52–2.08) 0.915
3rd Quartile 5 342 66 1.51 (0.83–2.78) 0.180 1.71 (0.90–3.26) 0.105
4th Quartile (highest) 6–11 47 12 2.17 (0.93–5.09) 0.075 2.23 (0.89–5.60) 0.088
 Hyperactivity–impulsivity
1st Tertile (lowest) 0–3 135 20 1.00   - 1.00   -
2nd Tertile 4 413 67 1.11 (0.65–1.92) 0.698 0.92 (0.52–1.64) 0.776
3rd Tertile (highest) 5–9 173 35 1.46 (0.80–2.66) 0.220 1.11 (0.58–2.12) 0.750
Table 4-3. Association between Poor Student Performance (Presenteeism) in University and a Combination of Autistic Trait Scores and ADHD Trait Scores (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

Autistic traits ADHD traits No. of participants No. of cases Univariate Multivariate
AQ-Short Range of scores ASRS Range of scores OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p
Low 40–75 Low 0–9 444 106 1.00   - 1.00   -
High 76–104 Low 0–9 103 48 2.78 (1.78–4.34) <0.001 2.79 (1.78–4.39) <0.001
Low 40–75 High 10–20 127 51 2.14 (1.41–3.25) <0.001 2.20 (1.44–3.36) <0.001
High 76–104 High 10–20 47 27 4.31 (2.32–7.99) <0.001 3.78 (2.01–7.08) <0.001
Table 5-3. Association between Low Class Attendance in University and a Combination of Autistic Trait Scores and ADHD Trait Scores (n = 721).

From: Autistic and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Traits Are Associated with Suboptimal Performance among Japanese University Students

Autistic traits ADHD traits No. of participants No. of cases Univariate Multivariate
AQ-Short Range of scores ASRS Range of scores OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p
Low 40–75 Low 0–9 444 67 1.00   - 1.00   -
High 76–104 Low 0–9 103 20 1.36 (0.78–2.36) 0.281 1.48 (0.84–2.62) 0.180
Low 40–75 High 10–20 127 27 1.52 (0.92–2.50) 0.100 1.61 (0.97–2.69) 0.068
High 76–104 High 10–20 47 8 1.15 (0.52–2.58) 0.727 1.00 (0.43–2.31) 0.995
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